Abstract
The 7th and 8th centuries in the East have witnessed a complete change in the way the world was organised. Initially, the Roman and the Persian Empires were considered as the two main poles of civilization, while the rest of the population was seen as barbarians evolving around the Empires, and sometimes used as a weapon for these two to fight. As a result, warfare between Byzantium and Persia in the 7th century reached its apogee when Persia took the advantage over its rival and gained Byzantine lands such as Syria, Palestine and some territories in Asia Minor. This led to the Byzantine reconquest by Heraclius in 630, ended up by the return of the Cross in the Holy Land. However, the unity of the Byzantine Empire was not yet achieved – especially in a religious way – and while Heraclius tried to find a compromise with the reconquested dissident Eastern lands, a new actor emerged and ruined his efforts.
The Arab forces, even if fairly known, rose so quickly under the prophet Mohammed that their willing of conquest probably surprised Byzantium. In a decade, the Arabs put an end to the Persian strength by annexing Mesopotamia, the heartland of the Empire, and also conquered the Holy Lands, few years after the Byzantine reconquest itself. The Byzantine Empire had, after the fall of the Persian one, to fight for its own survival. Taking the Byzantines standpoint, this essay will aim to describe the Arab conquest from the death of the prophet in 632 and further explain how the Byzantine reactions were organised – and even at some point, were efficient – to the death of Constantine V in 775. The main issue at stakes throughout the 7th and 8th centuries was the control of some geographical areas, starting with the new Arab Empire (Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia), then Egypt and North Africa. The main battles occurred in Asia Minor, constantly raided by the Arabs, but also within the northern Syrian boundary, and Armenia, which was divided by princes' allegiance between Arabs and Byzantines. Constantinople remained the main target and catalyser of the Arab conquest, and thus occupied an important role in this warfare. The sea was another major factor to consider since the Arabs realised that the capture of the City would be possible only with a fleet. Having this historical, geographical and chronological context in mind, we can now fairly ask ourselves how the situation evolved for Byzantium, and how the new born Arab Empire influenced the Byzantine world, which had to survive, manage, and handle this new threat.
To properly quote the subject of this essay, how did the Byzantine reaction to the Arab conquest manifest and develop itself throughout the 7th-8th centuries?
