The Evolution of Press Freedom and Liberalism in 19th Century Europe: A Historical Analysis

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[...] Treaty of Verdun Vassals consider that the lands were given to them, engage fiefs that privatize territories. Feudal Domination: patrimonialisation of power 2. The 'dynamics of the West' (Norbert Elias) A competition between lords leads to the centralization of political power in the hands of the king 2 monopolies to have for a sovereign : - Monopoly of taxation: he is the only one who can raise taxes - Monopoly of legitimate violence: the exclusivity of the use of force, he makes peace respected inside and war respected outside To exercise these 2 monopolies, institutions are needed. [...]

[...] Popular sovereignty: paradigm of modern politics 3. The constitution, fundamental text of modern political regimes BIRTH OF THE MODERN STATE I. The Modern State 1. What is feudalism? Vassal contracts between sovereign and one of his faithful: Vassal agreed to make war and govern a territory on behalf of the sovereign and the sovereign gave land/property so that he could govern in good conditions, vassal received the right to apply the law on the territory and the population assigned to him. [...]

[...] It deepens the critique of Keynes and proposes a new reading of liberalism by saying that the state should not intervene in the economy In the 1970s, neo-liberalism substituted Keynesianism for three reasons: - Political liberalism no longer evolves much after 1945 - The 1970s mark the end of the 30 glorious years and the welfare state model enters a crisis. A certain number of events correspond to Hayek's predictions - Neo-liberalism is adopted as an economic model by most countries. Under Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, dismantling of the welfare state, tax cuts 3. [...]

[...] The remaining value produced is what Marx calls surplus value, which is captured by the bourgeoisie, enriching itself through the workers' labor and maintaining its dominance because this pattern is constantly reproduced. This is what he calls the reproduction of capital. However, according to Marx, this system generates its own contradictions. The more time advances, the greater the concentration of capital becomes, the more the workers become impoverished. As there are increasingly more poor people, the system will collapse and the proletariat will revolt, somewhat like the bourgeoisie had overthrown the nobility and feudalism during the French Revolution. [...]

[...] The conditions of a free and honest vote It is necessary to have conditions that allow for a free and informed vote Conditions : - Guarantee of civil liberties : Involves the existence of a constitution, the rule of law, and a guarantee of civil and political liberties (which allow for debate, such as freedom of opinion, freedom of expression, freedom of publication, freedom of assembly) - Guarantee of a just and honest execution Autonomization of the vote: allowing each person to vote with a clear conscience - Guarantee of an informed vote: Citizens must be able to vote freely and informed based on their opinions Through education Through politicization Through the practice of suffrage Votes under the Second Empire favored the vote of democracy because people already knew how to vote thanks to plebiscites II. Democratic Functioning 1. Political Parties and Electoral Competition Political Party: an organization that carries out a program that brings together people who want to apply this program Several processes that give birth to political parties : - Replacement of existing political parties - Organizations that existed but did not engage in politics (e.g. socialists) These parties engage in electoral competition Electoral competition gives birth to political cultures (currents of opinion) 2. [...]